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Aggression and Violent Behavior 14 (2009)5-12 S Contents lints available at ScienceDirect Aggression and Violent Behavior Examining the modus operandi of sexual offenders against children and its practical implications Benoit Leclerc a•*, Jean Proulx 6, Eric Beauregard • Schad of OiminoloRy and CriminalJustice. Griffith University. Brisbane. Qtreerulead. 4111. Australia b Schou( of Criminology. Uniwrsity of Monbral & Research Centre Philippe•Hnrl of Montreal. TO 903 bout llenri-Bouroswa est Montreal. Quebec. Canada JIIC Jill School of Criminology. Simon kin." University. 8886 Unitersift Drive. &unity. Minch Columba. Conalo USA IS6 ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: The purpose of this article is to review the theoretical, empirical, and practical implications related to the Received 14 March 2006 modus operandi of sexual offenders against children. First. the rational choice perspective in criminology is Received in revised form 26 July 2008 presented. Second, descriptive studies aimed specifically at providing information on modus operandi of Accepted 30 July 2008 sexual offenders against children are also presented. This is followed by research that investigates the links Availabk online 7 Anson 2008 between the modus operandi of sexual offenders against children and various factors such as victim characteristics. Third, offenders' treatment. as well as situational crime prevention implications in regards to Keywords: Child sexual abuse modus operandi. is discussed in order to highlight their respective potential for the prevention of child sexual Sexual ofknding abuse. Mots operandi 0 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Treatment Situational creme prevention Contents 1. Theoretical context 1.1. The rational choke perspective in criminology 1.2. The crime-commission model in criminology 2. Empirical studies 21. Age of the offender 2.2. Age of the victim 23. Gender of the victim 2.4. Offender-victim relationship 2S. Deviant sexual fantasies 3. The benefits of modus operandi studies 3.1. Treatment implications of modus operandi studies 3.2. Situational crime prevention implications of modus operandi studies 4. Conclusion 1 References 1 In their empirical studies on sexual offenses against children, (1997), who define modus operandi as 'the actions taken by an Kaufman. Hilliker and Daleiden (1996) define the modus operandi as offender to perpetrate the offense successfully" (p. 353). Over the "the pattern of behaviors that perpetrators display in the periods prior years, the interest regarding the study of the modus operandi of sexual to, during, and following illicit sexual contact' (p. 18). Another offenders against children has increased. As an example, a series of definition is provided by Douglas. Burgess, Burgess and Ressler modus operandi studies have been carried out by Kaufman and his colleagues (e.g. Kaufman, Hilliker, & Daleiden. 1996) to provide • Corresponding author. Tel.: •617 3735 5823. empirical information for prevention purposes. As the rational choice &mod address: hleclerctegriffithAduau (B, Leclerc). perspective in criminology focuseson thecriminal decision-making in 1359-1789/S - see front matter 0 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.10166a0.2008.08.001 Downloaded for Anecymotn User (iVa) at Brown University from ClinicalKey.ccen by Elsevier on November 05. 2021. For persetul use only. No other uses without permission. Copyright 02021. Elsevier Inc. All rights resened. 3502-032 Page I of 8 EFTA_00001655 EFTA00156996 6 & Were Cr or. /Aggression and Violent Behavior 14 (2009) 5-12 relation to crime commission (Cornish, 1993), which includes the Cornish, 1985, 2001: Cornish & Clarke. 1986). For the purpose of this strategies adopted by the offender, it represents a useful framework to study, the model of interest is the criminal event model which better understand the modus operandi of offenders. accounts for the commission of a specific Clime. Because the initial criminal event model involved only one stage of thecrime-commission I. Theoretical context process, that is, target selection, Cornish (1994) proposed the concept of crime scripts to assist in the analysis of the whole crime-commission 1.1. The rational choice perspective in criminology process. Crime scripts are step-by-step accounts of the strategies adopted by offenders tocommit crimes. The most important benefit of The starting point of the rational choice perspective on criminal the Clime script concept is that it provides a framework to system- behavior is that criminal acts are never senseless, but purposive atically investigate all of the stages of the crime-commission process of (Clarke & Cornish, 2001; Cornish &Clarke. 1986). Offenders are seen as a specific crime and in as much detail as existing data allow (Cornish. rational individuals who commit crimes in an attempt to satisfy their 1994). It also helps to identify the decisions that the offender must need for rewards such as money, sexual intercourse, elevated status, make at each stage as well as the situational variables such as obstacles and excitement. Cornish and Clarke (2002) also state that "the choice that might lead the offender to alter his initial modus operandi. of methods for carrying out the crime, and the decision-making Cornish (1998) was the first to elaborate crime-commission script involved, are also best regarded as instrumental behaviors in the models for sexual offenses against children. He outlined two particular service of offenders' goals" (p. 41). Even though decision-making is scripts related to sexual abuse of male victims, that is, a script to constrained by time, the offender's cognitive abilities. and the account for offenses committed by stranger offenders in public places availability of relevant information (Cornish & Clarke, 1987; see also and another explaining offenses perpetrated by offenders in residen- Johnson & Payne. 1986), offenders nevertheless attempt to minimize tial institutions. As an illustration, the latter script is the following: their risks of apprehension and maximize their gains. Offenders are preparation (elaboration of sexual fantasies, access and use of child thus perceived as decision makers, whose choices are directed by the pornography, network of other offenders), entry to setting (already in values, the costs, and the likelihood of obtaining desired outcomes. setting), preconditions (using a legitimate role, right of access to all The rational choice perspective is particularly relevant since it "offers aspects of setting. absence of capable guardians), instrumental just such a fluid, dynamic picture—one that views offending as more precondition (selecting a potential victim), instrumental initiation present-oriented and situationally influenced" than other criminolo- ("grooming'), instrumental actualization (removal or access to an gical theories (Clarke & Cornish, 2001, p. 32). Situational factors such unsupervised place, lack of escape routes). doing (sexual assault), as the resistance of the victim, are seen as having an important role postcondition (successful disengagement) and exit from setting. since it influences the decisions of the offender and consequently, the Although these crime-commission script models were not empirically offender-victim interaction that follows when a crime is committed verified, they showed the relevance of studying sexual offenses using (Tedeschi & Felson, 1994). For example, Elliott, Browne. and Kilcoyne this approach. Moreover. the crime-commission script model repre- (1995) found that 39% of sexual offenders in their sample said that sents a sequence of instrumental actions adopted prior, during, and they would use threats or violence to overcome child resistance if following the criminal act and thus, is consistent with the modus necessary. Because crime is viewed as a dynamic process influenced operandi temporal framework provided by Kaufman, Hilliker, and by situational factors, offenders are seen as individuals that may Daleiden (1996). improve their decision-making through experience and learn to Somewhat influenced by Cornislis work (1998), Beauregard, Proulx, modify their strategies to commit crimes. Rossmo, Leclerc, and Allaire (2009) conducted a study on serial sex An important feature of this perspective is that it emphasizes the offenders to identify particular crime-commission scripts with this importance of the behaviors adopted by the offender to more fully population. This study analyzed 361 criminal events reported by 72 comprehend the "how" of the crime. From a rational choice perspective. serial sex offenders, mostly offenders against women. Using hierarchical Proulx, Ouimet. and Lachaine (1995) conducted an exploratory study cluster and multiple correspondence analyses, the authors identified examining the decisions and behaviors of sexual offenders against three different crime-commission scripts: (1) coercive; (2) manipula- children to better understand their crime-commission process. These tive: and (3) non-persuasive. that is, no particular strategy. This study authors suggested that the offender has to make a series of decisions also suggests that sexual offenders can switch from one strategy to before sexually abusing a child. According to Froth( et al. (1995), the another according to environmental factors, such as the crime location, offender has tochoose his hunting ground, that is, the places where he is when committing crimes. likely to encounter a potential victim and the time when he is going to offend. Following these decisions, the offender has to select a victim 2. Empirical studies according to his/her erotic value (age, gender and physical character- istics), to his/her vulnerability(physical and/or psychological)and to his/ The first studies which specifically analyzed the modus operandi of her familiarity. Finally, the offender has to decide how he is going to sexual offenders against children were conducted in the late 1980s approach the victim, and which strategy he will adopt to get the victim (Berliner & Conte, 1990; Budin & Johnson, 1989; Christiansen & Blake. involved in sexual activity. But more importantly. this study suggested 1990; Conte, Wolf. & Smith, 1989: Lang & Frenzel, 1988 ) (see Table 1). that the strategies adopted by a sexual offender may be influenced by These studies were mainly undertaken to provide information for situational factors. For instance, it showed that a public hunting ground prevention purposes.As Berliner and Conte (1990) pointed out: "Much and a stranger victim are characteristics that may be related to using current prevention knowledge is based on anecdotal information coercion for obtaining sexual contact. Ouimet and Proulx (1994) also about the victimization process. Understanding the process... will suggested that the more distance traveled by the offender to find a help locate areas for prevention education both for already victimized potential victim, the higher the level of violence used to commit the children and for children in general" (p. 29). These studies provided Clime crucial data about the strategics adopted by sexual offenders against children to commit their crimes. For example, offenders have been 1.2. The crime-commission model in criminology found to gradually desensitize the victim to physical contact before moving to sexual touch (Berliner & Conte. 1990; Christiansen & Blake. The rational choice perspective was used as the theoretical frame- 1990). Offenders also use some type of coercion and threats (Berliner work to derive models ofcriminal behavior, each implying a distinctive & Conte, 1990; Budin & Johnson, 1989; Conte el a4 1989; Lang & decision process influenced by a different set of factors (Clarke & Frenzel, 1988), particularly when manipulation fails (Christiansen & Downloaded for Anonymom User (nre) at mown Universiv from ClinicalKey.can by filmier on November 05. Foe personal use only. No other toes without eamismoo. Copyright c2021. Elsmia Inc. All rights reserved. 3502-032 Page 2 of 8 EFTA_00001656 EFTA00156997  8. (mie' er et /Aggickson end Volenr &how" w (2009) 5-12 7 Table 1 An important contribution of the Modus Operandi Questionnaire Clescuptive research on the modus operandi of sexual offenders against children (MOQ) developed by Kaufman (1991) is that it provides a temporal Study Sample characteristics n Modus operandi statelD framework to collect data on all aspects of offender-victim interaction investigated during the crime-commission process. This framework places beha- Berliner and Conte (1990) Child victims of sexual 23 Gaining cooperation and viors along a temporal continuum beginning with offenders tactics to abuse reavited from the keeping the victim silent access victims and includes strategies adopted to gain victims' trust, Sexual ASSaUlt Center in gain victims' cooperation in sexual activity, and maintain victims Seattle (USA) Budin and Incarcerated adult 72 Gaining access to slain silence following the abuse. With this instrument, Kaufman and his Johnson (1989) offenders (USA) treat. and keeping the colleagues undertook a series of studies to examine the modus victim silent operandi of sexual offenders against children. Because of the inherent Cluishatisen and Adult incest offender/ 7 Wining trust. qualities of this instrument (e.g., good internal consistency of the Blake (1990) following treatment cooperation and keeping (USA) the victim silent scales, see Kaufman et 1997, 1998), other researchers also adopted Conte et al. (1989) Adult offenders 20 Gaining access to victim this means to study modus operandi (Leclerc. Proulx & McKibben. following treatment and and cooperation 2005; Smallbone &Wortley, 2000). Although these later studies are of recruited at the significant interest, the modus operandi alone does not fully explain Northwest Treatment the crime-commission process. Factors, such as victim characteristics Associates-Mercer in Seattle (USA) and situational variables, may be related and may influence the modus Elliott et al (1995) Treated adult offenders 91 Gaining access to listing operandi which may, in turn, have consequences on the outcome of moulted from cooperation. and the crime. Further, as stated by rational choice theorists, especially by treatment programs. keeping the victim silent Cornish (1994), offenders can adapt themselves to particular factors, probation. special hospitals. and prisons such as situational variables, and they can learn and innovate by (England) adopting new strategies when necessary (Lacoste & Tremblay, 2003). Kaufman. Orts et al Adolescent and adult 140 Gaming cooperation This makes the study of relationships between modus operandi and (1996) offenders following other factors necessary to understand the crime-commission process. treatment in five states Some studies examined the relationship between modus operandi (USA) Kaufman. Wallace. Victims' reports meabuse 106 Gaming cooperation and other characteristics with multivariate analyses. In general, Johnson and Reeder (1995) (USA) research on sexual offending has shown that the modus operandi tang and Frenzel Adult offenders 102 Gaming cooperation and may vary according to the offender's age, victim characteristics and (1988) following treatment in keeping the victim silent situational factors. the Sex Offender Program at Alberta Hospital Edmonton 2.1. Age of the offender (Canada) Leclerc et al. (2005; Adult offenders 23 Gaining trust. As indicated in Table 2, one such study was conducted by Kaufman following treatment and cooperation and keeping et al. (1998). These authors compared the modus operandi of recruited from prisons. the victim silent probation and adolescent and adult offenders and found that the age of the offender penitentiary settings. (adolescent or adult) might be related to modus operandi. They parole offices and reported two important differences between adolescent and adult treatment programs in modusoperandi. First, their results showed that adolescent, compared Quebec (Canada) to adult offenders, adopted strategies more frequently tocommit their Proulx et al. (1995) Incarcerated adult 10 Gaining cooperation offenders in Quebec crimes. Second, adolescents also reported having used violence more (Canada) Smallbone and Incarcerated adult 182 MI modus operandi Wortley (2000) offenders in Queensland stages Yak 2 (Australia) Research linking modus operandi of sexual offenders against children with other van Dam (1996. 2001) Adult offenders 21 Gaining access to victitn. characteristics following treatment and trust. cooperation and recruited at the keeping the victim silent Study Sample characteristics n Characteristics related to Northwest Treatment modus operandi ASSOC tees in Seattle Caller et al. Adolescent offenders 247 Non-deviant and deviant (USA) (2002) following treatment in six sexual fantasies Wortley and Incarcerated adult 169 Gaining access to victim different states (USA) Smallbone (2006) offenders in Queensland and obtaining time alone Carter et al. Adolescent and adult 228 Non-deviant and deviant (Australia) with victim (2005) offenders following treatment sexual fantasies Young (1997) Child sexual assault 45 Gaining access to INTIM. in six different states (USA) case-files from the trust. and cooperation Hunter et al. Police investigative records of 126 Victim's vulnerability Victim-Witness (2000) incarcerated adolescent Assistance Programme offenders at the FM Academy in WindsortEssex in Quito. %/Stink% (USA) County. Ontario Kaufman. Hilliker Adolescent offenders 179 Gender of victim. age of (Canada) and Daleiden (1996) following treatment and youngest victim and incarcerated in Ohio (USA) offender-victim relationship Kaufman et al. Adolescent and adult 228 Age of the offender (1998) offenders following treatment (adolescent or adult) and in Minnesota. Ohio. Oregon. offender-victim Blake. 1990). These studies, however, did not define the concept of and Washington (USA) relationship modus operandi and were lacking reliable instruments to assess all Leclerc et al Incarcerated adult offenders 226 PflOf offending stages of modus operandi (e.g gaining access to the victim, gaining the (2006) assessed between 1995 and achievement. age of the trust of the victim) Consequently. several stages of the modusoperandi 2000 at the Regional victim and deviant sexual could not several be systematically investigated, and specific strategies Reception Centre of Ste-Anne- fantasies des-Plaines. Quebec (Canada) at various stages of modus operandi could not be identified either. Downloaded for Anonymous User (Oa) at Damn Universiv from CliniealKey.ecen by Elicits on November OS. 2021. Ike wrsonal use only. No other uses without tvimisixememuright 02021. Elmira Inc. All rights reserved. 3502-032 Page 3 of 8 EFIA_00001657 EFTA00156998 S a Leclerc er at /Aggression and Violent Beho‘lor 14 (2009)5-12 often than adult offenders. To explain these results, Kaufman et al. both adolescent and adult modus operandi. Specifically, they found (1998) suggested that adult offenders benefit from a special status that adolescent intrafamilial offendersadopted strategies consisting of (e.g., sociaL parental) which may reduce their need to adopt strategies exposing victims to pornography to gain their cooperation more fre- as often as adolescent offenders do. As stated by Kaufman. Orts el aL quently than adolescent extrafamilial offenders. Further, in order to (1996), offenders may also progress developmentally from the use of gain the victim's cooperation, intrafamilial offenders adopted strate- coercive strategies to more sophisticated methods like manipulation. gies which consisted ofgiving gifts and making the victim feel helpless Victim characteristics, such as the age, however, could have a more (e.g., tell others about their sexual behavior) more frequently than prominent impact on modus operandi. extrafamilial offenders, whereas the latter group more frequently used alcohol and drugs strategics. This was the case for both adolescent and 2.2. Age of the victim adult offenders. These results show that intrafamilial offenders may benefit from their status as a family member in that it provides them With a sample of 226 adult offenders, Leclerc. Carpentier, and Proulx the opportunity to command authority; thus. it makes the adoption of (2006) studied the impact of several factors,such astheage of the victim particular strategies possible (e.g., tell others about their sexual (0-13 years old). on the likelihoodof adopting a manipulative, a coercive behavior) (Kaufman et al.. 1998). or a non-persuasive strategy to involve the victim in sexual activity.They found that adult offenders who sexually abuse olderchildren were more 2.5. Deviant sexual fantasies likely to use a manipulative, rather than a non-persuasive strategy. In addition, Kaufman, Hilliker. and Daleiden (1996) found that various The presence of deviant sexual fantasies is also a relevant factor manipulative and coercive strategies adopted by adolescent offenders regarding modus operand'. Leclerc et aL (2006) found that adult vary as a function of the age of the victim. Using a sample of 179 offenders with deviant sexual fantasies 48 h prior to their offense were adolescent offenders, these authors examined the relationship between significantly more likely to adopt a manipulative, rather than a non- the age of the youngest victim (0-3 years. 4-6 years, 7-9 years, 10- persuasive strategy.It should be noted that adult offenders who adopted 12 years,13-17 years)and several sets of strategies at different stages of a manipulative strategy also had more deviant sexual fantasies than the modus operandi. Except for the "using alcohol and drugs" set of those who used a coercive strategy. This is somewhat inconsistent with strategics to gain the victinis cooperation for which the frequency ofuse the results obtained by Carter. Kaufman, Barber, Galindo. and Mamane followed a linear increase across all age groups, the frequency of use for (2002). Using a sample of 247 adolescent offenders, these authors other sets of strategies (giving gifts and giving love/attention to gain specifically studied the relationship between sexual fantasies and victim's trust, giving love/attention and threatening to alter victim- violence, and found that offenders who used extreme violence were offender relationship to gain victim's cooperation, and threatening to those who reported a higher frequency of deviant sexual fantasies. withdraw benefits to maintain victim's silence) rose as the victim's age However. they also found that adolescent offenders who used violence increased from birth (0-3 years) to middle childhood (4-9 years) and were more likely to report a higher frequency of sexual fantasies overall. then decreased as the victim's age increased from middle childhood to that is, non-deviant as well as deviant sexual fantasies. Adolescence is adolescence (10-17 years). While the age of the victim has an impart on characterized "by an increase in sexual drive, with a concomitant the modus operandi. research is not as conclusive as with the gender of increase in sexual interaction and experimentation... The increase of the victim. activity and interest in sexual behaviors are normal processes of the adolescent stage of human development" (Abel. Osborn. &TWigg.1993. 2.3. Gender of the victim p.105). In contrast to most adult offenders,adolescents may not yet have developed a fixed pattern of sexual arousal and interest, and generally. Studying the effects of victim gender on modusoperandi, Kaufman. low correspondence between measured arousal patterns and sexual tinker. and Dalciden (1996) found that several sets of strategies offending history is found (Hunter & Becker, 1994; Hunter, Goodwin & (giving gifts and giving love/attention to gain the victim's trust, giving Becker, 1994). Specifically, it suggests that the role of sexual fantasies in love/attention. threatening to harm the victim's friend and family and adolescent sexual offenses should be interpreted more cautiously. to alter the victim-offender relationship to gain the victim's coopera- Links between specific types of fantasies and various modus tion, and threatening to physically harm and to withdraw benefits to operandi strategies (giving drug/alcohol, desensitizing the victim to maintain the victim's silence) were more frequently used by offenders sexual contact, giving gifts, giving/withdrawing benefits) were who abused both male and female victims than offenders who abused recently examined (Carter. Kaufman, Estes. & Stotler-Turner, 2005). A only male or female victims. However, the modusoperandi of the latter relationship was found, that is, between coercive sexual fantasies and groups did not differ. As suggested by the results obtained by Hunter, drug/alcohol use foradult offenders.However, fantasies did not predict Hazelwood, and Slesinger (2000), it is also possible that the effect of the preferred type of modus operandi in adolescent sexual offenses. victim gender on modus operandi depends on other factors such as Overall, previous studies show the complexity of the relationship victim age, and victim resistance. between sexual fantasies and modus operandi. More importantly. it indicates that other research must be conducted to allow for more 2.4. Offender-victim relationship conclusive results. Another important factor linked to the modus operandi is the 3. The benefits of modus operand) studies offender-victim relationship (intrafamilial or extrafamilial). Kaufman, Hilliker and Daleiden (1996), Kaufman. Orts et al. (1996), and Kaufman, 3d. Treatment implications of modus operandi studies Hilliker. Lathrop, et aL (1996) studied the relationship between this variable and adolescent modus operandi. They found that offenders Across all modus operandi stages, offenders can adopt certain stra- who primarily selected intrafamilial victims more frequently adopted tegies that are similar to prosocial behaviors which consist of demon- strategies which consisted of giving gifts to gain the victim's trust, strating love,attention and appreciation towards someone. For example, giving love/attention and threatening to alter the victim-offender in order to gain the trust of his victims. the offender can spend much relationship to gain the victim's cooperation, and threatening to time with them. give them a lot ofattention. play with them and/or take withdraw benefits to maintain the victim's silence titan those prima- them places. To gain the cooperation of his victims in sexual activity, the rily selecting extrafamilial victims. In another study, Kaufman el al. offender can gradually desensitize them by non-sexual touching and/or (1998) examined the impact of the offender-victim relationship on saying loving things to them. In relapse prevention treatment these Downloaded for Anonym's% User (nre)a filCAVII Universiv from ClinicalKey.com by filmier on November 05. a"2 I . Foe personal use only. No other uses without germismon. Copyright 2021. Elumia Inc. All right.% roamed. 3502-032 Page 4 of 8 EFTA_00001658 EFTA00156999  Leclerc et el. / Aggrenion end Violent Behavior 14 (2009)542 9 behaviors are important links in the offense chain which leads to re- rational choice framework, situational crime prevention implies that offending Consequently. these strategies should be investigated in crimecan be conceived as being theoutcomeof immediatechoices and depth by therapists when assessing and treating offenders. As Kaufman decisions made by the offender (Clarke, 1980). The main goal of et al. (1998) state, increased information regarding specific offender situational prevention is to make the offender change his mind from behavior patterns could help therapists emphasize these behaviors in committing a crime by targeting the "precriminal situation" and the assessment process, and assist offenders to recognize them so as to reducing crime opportunities (Cusson, 1992; Cusson. Tremblay. L- prevent themselves from re-offending. Offenders could interrupt their Biron, Ouimet, & Grandmaison, 1994). Situational crime prevention offense chain at an earlier, less dangerous point (Kaufman, Hilliker. consists of "opportunity-reducing measures that (1) are directed at Lathrop, Daleiden.& Rudy,1996). This is consistent with Cornish's (1994) highly specific forms of crime, (2) involve the management, design or rationale that the investigation of all stages of the crime-commission manipulation of the immediate environment in as systematic and process provides a wide range of intervention pointsat which thecrime permanent way as possible.(3) make crime more difficult and risky, or could be disrupted before occurring. less rewarding and excusable..." (Clarke. 1997, p. 4). More recently, In relapse prevention treatment. modus operandi can also be Wortley (1997, 1998. 2001) has argued that opportunity reduction is used as a framework to investigate obstacles that prevented only half of situational crime prevention and proposed (2001) a offenders from committing crimes. For example, an offender may classification of strategies and techniques for controlling situational not be capable of obtaining time alone with a child too well precipitators of crime that complement Clarke's (1997) existing supervised by his parents or may be less able to gain the cooperation classification of opportunity-reduction strategies. Techniques aimed of a child by desensitizing him to sexual contact in the absence of at controlling precipitators of crime are directed at the motivational pornographic materials. Therapists could identify those obstacles side of the person-situation interaction rather than the opportunity (e.g_ presence of someone who might interfere, no access to side (e.g., reducing permissibility by "shoplifting is stealing" signs). pornographic material) encountered in specific modus operandi Based on Wortley's work, Cornish and Clarke (2003) proposed a stages to more fully understand how these offenders were stopped revised classification of situational prevention strategies. Examples of from offending and why they did so. A modus operandi framework situational prevention techniques include the introduction of baggage would provide a means to identify where the crime is more likely to and passenger screening in airports, the installation of silent alarms in fail in order to favor the establishment of particular conditions which victims' homes, the development of security-coded car radios and the could limit the risk of re-offending (e.g. not being alone with promotion of responsible drinking practices (Clarke, 1997). children, not having access to pornographic materials). Situational crime prevention also benefited from Comish's work, Detailed information on the modus operandi of sexual offenders which, as previously mentioned. resulted in the development of against children also has implications for the treatment of child crime-commission script model analysis (Cornish, 1994). In fact, pro- sexual abuse victims. With this information, therapists working with viding a framework to investigate all stages of the crime-commission victims could have access to strategies adopted across all modus process of particular crimes offers a way of matching situational operandi stages. This way, victims would be more able to understand interventions to each of those stages (Cornish, 1994, 1998). With a the crime-commission process of sexual offenses against children as fuller range of possible intervention-points, it also becomes possible well as to distinguish manipulative strategies from similar behaviors to disrupt the perpetration of crime at an earlier point in the process with a more prosocial intent. This would also help victims under- (e.g., preparation phase). Crime-commission script models also offer a stand that they were not responsible for the sexual abuse (Kaufman means to pinpoint particular stages in which obstacles (e.g., resistance et al., 1998). Further, victim information on victimization process of the victim, presence of someone who might interfere) may be most and/or offender's self-report detailed modus operandi could help likely to stop the offender in his process of committing a crime. This victim's therapists guide each victim to pinpoint particular events in can provide a fuller picture of the crime-commission process as well as which the offender stopped from abusing him/her. This information a better understanding for situational prevention purposes. could provide cues on strategies that victims might be able to use to Although the great importance of modus operandi information for prevent further victimization. As Berliner and Conte (1990) have situational prevention purposes has been emphasized earlier in pointed out, children who have already been abused may be criminology by Cornish, few researchers and clinicians working with particularly good candidates to benefit from information on sexual offenders actually made suggestions as to possible situational victimization process. These children, having been through such a prevention techniques based on offenders' strategies. This is not process, might be better able to use this knowledge to prevent surprising since situational crime prevention has not been applied to further victimization. Berliner and Conte (1990) have already sexual offenses against children. As Wortley and Smallbone (2006) suggested that providing these children with a framework to better point out, it may be because sexual offending has often been conceived understand offenders' behaviors may make the assimilation of the as the product of irrational and pathological individuals which guided information easier.It should be noted that because of their young age researchers and clinicians to focus most of their work on the (victims of child sexual abuse are often vulnerable children, that is. "individual" rather than on situational factors. It may be also due to needy and isolated children) (e.g., Elliott et aL, 1995), the responsi- the lack of studies aimed at linking the modus operandi of sexual bility to prevent victimization by understanding offenders' strategies offenders to other componentsof the crime, such assituational factors. should not rest solely on the victims but also on victims' parents. However, as suggested by recent studies (Kaufman. Mosher, Carter. & Parents should be more able to understand offenders' strategies than Estes, 2006: Wortley & Smallbone, 2006), situational prevention of the victims and to use this information to prevent child sexual abuse sexual offenses against children is possible and provides another as well. In this sense, victim's parents can play an active role in the means to prevent these offenses from occurring. Although speculative prevention of further victimization and they could bean integral part at this stage, suggestions of situational prevention have been made in of the treatment of child sexual abuse victims. regards to the modus operandiof sexual offenders against children and related factors such as the location of the crime. 3.2. Situational crime prevention implications ofmodus operandi studies Drawing on the general situational crime prevention strategies (Cornish & Clarke. 2003; Wortley, 2001), Wortley and Smallbone Because situational crime prevention is a relatively new applied (2006) made suggestions by concentrating on four techniques, that is, criminological model, key elements will be briefly reviewed before increasing effort, increasing risk, controlling prompts, and reducing discussing its implications in regards to the modus operandi adopted permissibility. Increasing effort essentially means making it more by offenders in cases ofchild sexual abuse. Developed within a